After this concrete outcome was identified, Feeney employed the principles of chaining to identify the behaviors required to secure an observable act from the client. Using tape recordings of hundreds of sales presentations, Feeney worked backward from the desired terminal behavior in a step-by-step analysis of specific sales behaviors. The chain of essential behaviors that were identified included determining if the client was a viable customer, meeting with the decision maker, probing for needs, probing for objections and asking for an observable action.
Next Feeney developed a 40-hour programmed instructional package consisting of tape recordings and a workbook to shape each of the essential behaviors in the chain. Each of the modules was tested in the field. Those that worked were retained, and those that failed were revised. To make the training relevant and to make its application to the field as wide as possible, real-life examples taken from the observational tapes were used,
Most programmed instructional packages teach concepts about a skill, such as "A salesperson should probe for customer Answer: needs". At Emery, the program was designed to teach a skill: how to perform with a real customer. For example, after listening to a customer making an objection, the participant would be asked to identify the need expressed. Beginning with top management, personnel from all levels in all divisions of Emery went through the training. By the time the salespeople were trained, everyone at Emery knew how to sell the same way,
A post-call analysis procedure was introduced to maintain the new sales behavior. At the end of each call, regardless of the outcome, the salesperson was required to use the principles learned during training to systematically analyze and self-reinforce performance. Sales managers were trained to reinforce good sales performance and thorough and honest self-analysis. To evaluate effectiveness, the frequency of observable actions was monitored. The results indicated that in the first full year of operation the rate of observable actions tripled.
The Emery Air Freight program illustrates the step-by-step process of putting together a training program. Feeney specified the problem behavior by asking the salespeople about their calls and by going out into the field with them. He identified the behavior-in-situation: observable actions at the end of a sales call. Obviously, to elicit an observable action, the salesperson must engage in a complex series or chain of behaviors. If the salesperson failed to perform any one of the behaviors in the chain, he or she would fail to obtain an observable action. Therefore, the second step in problem specification was to conduct a functional analysis to identify each behavior in the chain. This, too, was accomplished by observing actual performance (listening to audio tapes of sales calls).
Notice that the problem was clearly defined in terms of an observable outcome. Collecting baseline data requires that the identification of an occurrence of the outcome be unambiguous. The frequency of observable actions was monitored. Evaluation consisted of comparing the frequency of observable actions after the end of the first year with the frequency before the training was instituted. During the training, each behavior in the chain was shaped through a series of programmed instructions. Programmed instructions allowed participants to work individually at their own rate. Built-in feedback provided immediate reinforcement for correct responses and information to improve incorrect ones.
Generalization from the classroom to real-life situations is always a serious problem. Newly acquired behavior not reinforced in the target setting will extinguish rapidly. This is often what happens after training: The behaviors acquired during the training are ignored or, worse yet, are punished in the setting in which they are intended to occur. Usually the problem is simply that the supervisor neglects to reinforce the new learning. More serious is the situation when super visors and other members of the staff engage in (model) and respond to (reinforce) behaviors incompatible with the ones learned in their training.
For such a program to be effective, considerable attention should be devoted to developing a means of generalizing learning to the target setting and then maintaining it at a high frequency level. The Emery Air Freight program did this in four ways. First, examples in teaching and practice frames of the programmed instruction work book were taken from actual sales calls. The closer the training approximates the target setting, the more likely it will be for generalization to occur. The second generalization technique was to alter the environment so that it became more like the training situation. To do this, Feeney had all levels-beginning at the top-go through the training; in this way, he eliminated conflicting contingencies. A company wide standard for sales calls had been established. The training and top-level support established exactly which sales behaviors were considered desirable. In this way the antecedents were introduced which elicited a particular kind of sales behavior. Third, reinforcement was built into the environment. Sales managers were instructed to use information from the post-call analysis to reinforce appropriate sales behavior. Finally, generalization and maintenance were further facilitated by arranging for self-reinforcement. The post-call analysis required that salespeople analyze their performance after the call. Not only does this promote self-reinforcement of those sales behaviors performed well, but it serves to pinpoint areas that need improvement.
Behavioral rehearsal is a procedure in which trainees enact or practice the behavior being learned. A program con ducted by Kenneth Wexley and Wayne Nemeroff with 27 first-level managers in an urban medical center illustrates how behavioral rehearsal can be used in training supervisory skills. The managers (in groups of nine) attended two half-day training sessions. Training consisted of actively participating in a series of supervisory situations that simulated those the managers encountered on the job. For each situation, the trainer discussed effective and ineffective supervisory behaviors. During rehearsal, trainees took the role of supervisor and practiced the behaviors that had been pinpointed as effective in that situation. The roles of subordinates were enacted by assistants who were trained in eliciting the behaviors being focused on. At the end of each exercise the trainer made specific positive comments about those behaviors the manager had performed well (reinforcement) and assigned a specific behavioral objective or performance goal for the next exercise. For example, the trainer might have said, did a good job specifying standards. In the next exercise praise the subordinate for things he has done well." Or "Sally, the way you stated the purpose of the evaluation was excellent. Next time work on getting all the facts and considering them carefully before making a decision regarding the subordinate."
Tele-coaching, (a technique in which during the rehearsal trainees receive feedback through an ear device) was used with one of the three groups. During the tele-coaching, the trainer elicited some of the pinpointed behaviors by suggesting specific ways in which to handle the subordinate. For example, through the tiny ear microphone the trainee might hear, "Good, now praise the subordinate for what he has done well." The immediacy of the feedback allowed the trainer to shape the trainee's behavior by reinforcing small steps toward the pinpointed behaviors. "You've got the right idea. Now be more specific and tell the subordinate exactly what behaviors she has per formed well."
Following the formal training, self-monitoring and on-the-job coaching sessions with two of the three groups were used to generalize from the classroom to the job. Self-monitoring was accomplished with a 30-item behavioral checklist. Whenever the manager per formed one of the pinpointed behaviors, he or she marked the appropriate item on the list. For example, after making positive comments to a subordinate for quality performance, the manager would check "praised a subordinate for a job well done." After a week of self-monitoring, the trainer met on the job with each manager. During this coaching session the trainer reviewed the checklists, discussed performance problems, and assigned a specific behavioral objective or performance goal for the next two weeks. During the second coaching session, the trainer reviewed the checklists, praised any progress that had been made toward the goal, and urged managers to practice those behaviors they had not yet attempted on the job. Managers were asked to continue self-monitoring for three more weeks, after which the study was terminated.
Program evaluation revealed a difference among managers who had received on-the-job coaching (the generalization phase) and those who had participated in the classroom training only. Subordinates gave managers, who had been through the coaching sessions, higher ratings on two leadership dimensions. In addition, subordinates of managers who had been coached were absent less often. Contrary to expectations, tele-coaching did not boost performance.
The data showed that those who had on-the-job coaching received somewhat higher leadership scores than those who had tele-coaching. The behavioral rehearsal provides trainees with an opportunity to practice pinpointed behaviors in all aspects. The trainee can perfect voice, movement, and timing. The ongoing dialogue provides an opportunity for the trainee to assess information gathered from the surrogate subordinate and to make a decision about an appropriate response. The addition of feedback and goal-setting between rehearsal exercises accelerates the learning process. The feedback differentiates what behavior is on target and what behavior needs improvement. The goal-setting provides a small step in a series of approximations of the eventual skill.
In theory, the tele-coaching should maximize learning: The ear device allowed the trainer to provide guidance and immediate feedback. Cueing correct performance and providing continuous immediate reinforcement when it occurs should result in rapid learning.
Comments from trainees indicated that the device was disruptive and made them nervous. A little tension is necessary for learning-it keeps one alert-but beyond an optimal level, tension is counterproductive, and this is what apparently happened with the tele-coaching.
An alternative method of prompting and of giving immediate feedback is for the trainer, sitting behind and somewhat to the side of the trainee, to coach that person during the rehearsal. In order to minimize anxiety, the rehearsal should proceed slowly and the trainer should explain that he or she will tap the trainee lightly on the shoulder before speaking. This allows a moment to focus attention onto the coach and reduces the confusion of trying to act and listen simultaneously. An additional benefit is that other trainees who observe the coaching have an opportunity to learn through modeling,
Wexley and Nemeroff's program emphasized the importance of building generalization into the training. The higher ratings of the managers who were coached on the job, as well as the reduced absenteeism among their subordinates, indicates that the training must go beyond the experimental stage. Two important processes must occur if the behavior is to become part of the trainee's daily repertoire: The behavior must be generalized to the target setting, and once it occurs at the appropriate frequency it must be maintained. One generalization strategy is to take the training into the target setting. The on-the-job coaching sessions accomplished this: The manager received reinforcement for performing on the job and was given a goal for further practice on the job. In this way the job setting was substituted for the classroom. The program at Emery Air Freight combined generalization and maintenance by making the on-the-job coaching sessions the responsibility of the sales manager. In this way, periodic coaching was established as a continuing on-the-job process.
